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          Philosophy of History

                      by Hegel


          Table of Contents



Introduction 
O The subject of this course of Lectures is the Philosophical History of the World。 

SECTION ONE: Original History 
§  1 They simply transferred what was passing in the world around them; to the realm of
representative intellect。 
§  2 The influences that have formed the writer are identical with those which have moulded the
events that constitute the matter of his story。 
§  3 What the historian puts into the mouths of orators is an uncorrupted transcript of their
intellectual and moral habitudes。 
§  4 Among the ancients; these annalists were necessarily great captains and statesmen。 

SECTION TWO: Reflective History 
§  5 Reflective history's mode of representation is not really confined by the limits of the time to
which it relates。 

___1 Universal History 
§  6 It is the aim of Universal History to gain a view of the entire history of a people or a country。 
§  7 History must foreshorten its pictures by abstractions。 

___2 Pragmatical History 
§  8 Pragmatical History takes the occurrence out of the category of the Past and makes it
virtually Present。 

___3 Critical History 
§  9 In Critical History; it is not history itself that is presented; but a History of History。 
§ 10 Critical History adopts an abstract position; yet forms a transition to the Philosophical
History。 

SECTION THREE: Philosophic History 
§ 11 Philosophy of History means nothing but the thoughtful consideration of it。 
§ 12 Reason is the Sovereign of the World; history therefore; presents us with a rational process。 
§ 13 The World of intelligence and conscious volition is not abandoned to chance; but must show
itself in the light of the self…cognisant Idea。 
§ 14 Two points of view that concern the generally diffused conviction that Reason rules in the
world。 

I: Reason Governs World 
§ 15 Anaxagoras was the first to enunciate the doctrine that Reason governs the world。 
§ 16 That Nature is unchangeably subordinate to universal laws; appears nowise strange to us。 
§ 17 Religious holds that the world is not abandoned to chance; but that a Providence controls it。 

II The Essential Destiny of Reason 
§ 18 The question; what is the ultimate design of the World? 
§ 19 Spirit is our substantial object。 Our task does not require us to contemplate Nature as a
Rational System in itself。 
§ 20 The three parts of the Destiny of Reason。 

___(1) The Abstract Characteristics of the Nature of Spirit 
§ 21 As the essence of Matter is Gravity; so; on the other hand; the essence of Spirit is Freedom。

§ 22 Eastern nations knew that one is free; the Greeks and Romans that some are free; whilst we
know that all men are free。 
§ 23 The final cause of the World; we allege to be Spirit's consciousness of its own freedom。 

___(2) The Means Spirit Uses to Realise Its Idea 
§ 24 The first glance at History convinces us that the actions of men proceed from their needs;
their passions; their characters and talents。 
§ 25 Aims; principles; &c。; have a place in our thoughts; but not yet in the sphere of reality。 
§ 26 Nothing great in the World has been acplished without passion。 
§ 27 A State is powerful; when the private interest of its citizens is one with the mon interest。 
§ 28 The universal Idea exists as the substantial totality of things; and as the abstract essence of
free volition。 
§ 29 The passions of men are gratified and build up the edifice of human society; for Right and
Order。 
§ 30 The agent's aims are limited but the agents themselves are intelligent thinking beings。 
§ 31 History has to do with those momentous collisions between existing; acknowledged duties;
laws; and rights。 
§ 32 The particular aims of great historical men involve those large issues which are the will of the
World…Spirit。。 
§ 33 Such individuals had no consciousness of the Idea they were unfolding; but were practical;
political men。 
§ 34 They are great men; because they acplished the needs of the age。 
§ 35 A World…historical individual is devoted to the One Aim。 
§ 36 It is not the Idea that is exposed to danger。 It remains in the background; untouched and
uninjured。 This may be called the cunning of reason。 
§ 37 When speaking of the realisation of great ideals by individuals; the subjective element in
them has an infinite right to be consulted。。 
§ 38 We must not fall into the Litany of Lamentations; that the good and pious often fare ill in the
world。 
§ 39 The means which the World…Spirit uses for realising its Idea involves the activity of personal
existences in whom Reason is present; but still obscure and unknown to them。 

___(3) The Embodiment Spirit Assumes — the State 
§ 40 What is the material in which the Ideal of Reason is wrought out? … Personality itself … human
desires … Subjectivity generally。 
§ 41 The Idea is the inner spring of action; the State is the actually; existing; realised moral life。 
§ 42 The first error is that man is free by nature; but that in society; he must limit this natural
freedom。 
§ 43 Freedom does not exist as original and natural — it must be first sought out and won。 
§ 44 The patriarchal condition is one of transition; its unity not advancing beyond the merely
natural。 
§ 45 No law can be valid without the approval of all。 
§ 46 The State is an abstraction; but it is an actuality; and must embody itself in individual will。 
§ 47 The necessity of a particular constitution is made to depend on the condition of the people
as if it were accidental。 
§ 48 The State is the embodiment of rational freedom; realising itself in an objective form。 
§ 49 The State is the Idea of Spirit in the external manifestation of human Will and its Freedom。 
§ 50 We observe a union between the objective … the Idea; … and the subjective… the personality
that conceives and wills it。 
§ 51 The definite substance that exists in the State; is the Spirit of the People itself。 
§ 52 Freedom can exist only where Individuality is recognised as having its real existence in the
Divine Being。 
§ 53 While the State is based on Religion; Religion supposes the State already to exist。 
§ 54 Religion is by no means a thing to be so produced; its self…production lies much deeper。 
§ 55 An opposite folly is that of pretending to invent and carry out political constitutions
independently of religion。 
§ 56 The State constitutes the rights of its members; its natural features are their country; their
outward material property。 
§ 57 This matured totality constitutes the spirit of one People。 Each individual is the Son of his
Nation; the Son of his Age。 
§ 58 Each particular National genius is only One Individual in the process of Universal History。 
§ 59 Nothing further remains for this introductory section to contemplate but 。。。。 

III The Course of World History 
§ 60 History is an advance to something better; but Nature exhibits only a perpetually
self…repeating cycle。 
§ 61 The principle of Development finds actual existence in Spirit; which has the History of the
World for its theatre。 
§ 62 The Spirit's expansion is not the harmless tranquillity of mere growth; but a stern reluctant
working against itself。 
§ 63 The analysis of the successive grades; in their abstract form; belongs to Logic; in their
concrete aspect to the Philosophy of Spirit。 
§ 64 Possibility points to something destined to bee actual。 
§ 65 The investigation of the history of ancient peoples; to trace their annals up to the point where
fragments of primary revelation are to be met with。 
§ 66 We have to thank this interest for many valuable discoveries in Oriental literature。 
§ 67 An advanced condition of science; and the assertion that such a condition occurred at the
very beginning of History。 
§ 68 The only method philosophical investigation can adopt; is to take up History where
Rationality begins to manifest itself in the World's affairs。 
§ 69 The period before history was written are destitute of objective history; because they
present no subjective history。 
§ 70 The progress of Nations assumes importance for concrete Reason; only when they have
e in contact with States; or begin to form constitutions。 
§ 71 We now have to state the direction of its course: though here only formally。 
§ 72 The logical; and dialectical nature of the Idea; viz。 that it is self…determined — that it
assumes successive forms which it successively transcends; and by this very process gains a richer
and more concrete shape。 
§ 73 A doubt has been suggested whether in the progress of history and of general culture;
mankind have bee better。 
§ 74 The History of the World occupies a higher ground than that on which morality has properly
its position。 
§ 75 The condition of Philosophy's existence is the taking up of the object of thought; and at the
same time clothing it with the form of universality。 
§ 76 Language attains on its own particular ground a high intellectual development; prior to the
mencement of civilisation。 
§ 77 Philosophy also must make its appearance where political life exists。 
§ 78 Among all world…historical peoples; art; science; even philosophy show not only diversity in
style; but still more remarkably in subject…matter。 
§ 79 Those spheres of intelligence which lie beyond the limits of this consciousness are a mon
ground。 
§ 80 It is the concrete spirit of a people which we have to recognise; and it can only be
prehended spiritually。 
§ 81 History is the development of Spirit in Time; as Nature is the development of the Idea in
Space。 
§ 82 With a vast expenditure of power a trivial result is produced; while from what appears
unimportant; a tremendous issue proceeds。 
§ 83 What traveller among the ruins of Carthage or Rome has not reflected on the transience of
kingdoms and men。 
§ 84 Spirit manipulates itself; multiplying the material for future endeavours and gratifying its
desires in a variety which is inexhaustible。 
§ 85 The very essence of Spirit is activity; it realises its potentiality and bees an object to
itself; contemplates itself as an objective existence。 
§ 86 The Spirit of a people exists as a genus; and consequently carries within it its own negation。 
§ 87 It is not of the nature of the all…pervading Spirit to die this merely natural death。 
§ 88 The highest point in the development of a people is this: to have reduced its laws; its ideas of
justice and morality to a science。 
§ 89 We have then before us a real and an ideal existence of the Spirit of the Nation。 
§ 90 We are sure to see a people putting talk about virtue partly side by side with actual virtue。 
§ 91 At the same time the isolation of individuals from each other and from the Whole makes its
appearance。 
§ 92 Zeus and his race are themselves swallowed up by the very power that produced them —
the principle of thought。 
§ 93 Time is the negative element in the sensuous world。 Thought is the same negativity。 
§ 94 Thought is that Universal … that Species which is immortal。 
§ 95 Spirit; in rendering itself objective and making this an object of thought; destroys the
determinate form of its being; but gains a prehension of its universal element。 
§ 96 The individual traverses as a unity various grades of development; and remains the same
individual; in like manner also does a people。 
§ 97 The life of a people ripens a certain fruit。 But this fruit does not fall back into the bosom of
the people that produced it; but bees a poison…draught to it。 
§ 98 The principles of the successive phases of Spirit that animate Nations; are only steps of the
one universal Spirit。 
§ 99 Philosophy; as occupying itself with the True; has only to do with the eternally present。。 




Introduction

The subject of this course of Lectures is the Philosophical History of the World。 And by this must
be understood; not a collection of general observations respecting it; suggested by the study of its
records; and proposed to be illustrated by its facts; but Universal History itself。

I cannot mention any work that will serve as a pendium of the course; but I may remark that in
my The Philosophy of Right §§。 341…360; I have already given a definition of such a Universal
History as it is proposed to develo

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